Lebedev's scientific school was the culmination of his life's work. It came as the result of his monumental dedication and the creative contributions that his colleagues made during the development of the most complex classes of computers: universal high-performance and specialized. Leading technological progress in a new direction, plus establishing a new scientific school is an intricate and innovative process, and the creation of Lebedev's scientific school is definitely a classic example of such process. From the beginning, Lebedev adopted and consistently practiced one core principle of computer construction—the process of early computational parallelization. The arithmetical units in both the MESM and BESM were equipped in parallel, as were the M-20 and M-40. The BESM-6 used a kind of pipeline calculation method, and subsequent computers were built on a multiprocessor basis.
Every new computer was the result of a radical reworking of the preceding one, with a critical overview of everything new in the world of computers, both in the Soviet Union and abroad. In the Soviet Union however, the inferior technological and industrial capacity significantly undermined the speed of development. To simply exchange one elemental base for another, only slightly improved one, did not bring creative satisfaction: the semiconductor-based BESM-4 was an advanced machine that clearly went beyond its proposed plan, but it still incorporated the structure and commands of the M-20, and Lebedev did not give it high marks. He unquestionably supported the initiatives of the young scientists who created the first semiconductor computer, yet, together with his able assistants Alexander Tomilin and others, he was already building a prototype of the future BESM-6, trying to theoretically substantiate the structure and parameters of a new machine. "Before developing a computer, one has to design it," Lebedev noted immediately after developing the original BESM. He consistently upheld this principle.
Lebedev had the ability to take a well-planned idea and make it a reality, and he cultivated this quality in his students. In order to teach them how, he played all the roles: designer, constructor and assembler, adjustment engineer, technician, operator, and so forth. In other words, he taught through living, setting his own example. Later, when qualified specialists appeared, Lebedev entrusted them with the majority of the work, leaving only the most complex tasks of theoretical substantiation of innovations, computer structure, and parameters for himself.
It is not hard to believe, given Sergei Alexeevich's skill as a scientific supervisor, that his staff was highly motivated and reached phenomenal output during the 1950s and 1960s. What qualities did Lebedev possess that inspired them, gave them strength, and got their creative juices flowing during a period when working conditions were far from ideal? First, like no other person at that time, Lebedev was an expert in this new field of science and technology and was able to set very clear goals for teams of designers; then, with a complete understanding of the work, he actively participated in the projects. Second, Lebedev possessed enormous engineering experience and intuition, which allowed him to convince himself and others that it was possible to coordinate the operation of thousands of vacuum tubes. Third, Lebedev set an example of dedication to science by never avoiding tedious or menial work, for him no job was too small. Lastly, he was always able find common ground with the people he worked with.
Lebedev also had a gift for selecting the best personnel and effectively organizing the work. In Kiev and in Moscow, Lebedev had two or three able assistants who had decent creative and organizational abilities. The rest of the teams he hand picked from the recent graduates of top technical institutes, attracting them with the novelty and grandeur of his ideas.
The thrill of creating digital technology, with its future prospects, was an important factor. Computer technology was developing rapidly, holding the promise of new, more efficient applications for many branches of science that would promote technological progress and the growth of creative research. Lebedev's numerous publications played a great role in fostering these ideas. No less important was the creative rivalry that arose between the various organizations that were working on computer development and their desire to be on the same level with similar institutions abroad.
In Kiev, Lebedev had a laboratory with a large group of specialists. In Moscow, the Institute for Precision Mechanics became a leader in computer science carrying out Lebedev's plan to promote diverse research in the field of computer technology. On Lebedev's initiative, a department of computer technology was set up at the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology to prepare teams of specialists. Upon completion of their training, these teams were sent to the Institute for Precision Mechanics, which Sergei Alexeevich headed until 1973.
Even though the MESM and BESM never received proper recognition or timely support, they still became basic building blocks in the field of computer technology and contributed to the growing prestige for Lebedev and his students; the Institute for Precision Mechanics became famous worldwide. Gradually, though belatedly, Lebedev began receiving official recognition. Despite his indifference to rewards and interference from his opponents, Lebedev received many awards, such as the Order of Lenin in 1954, 1962, and 1972, the Lenin Prize in 1966, the State Prize of the Soviet Union in 1969, and the Order of the October Revolution in 1971. Many of his colleagues also received prestigious awards.
Many of Lebedev's students turned out to be great scientists as well. In Moscow, Sergei Alexeevich mentored Melnikov, a participant in the BESM-2 project who also helped with the manufacture of the first computers in China. After becoming convinced of Melnikov's remarkable abilities, Sergei Alexeevich appointed him as the operations manager at the start of BESM-6's development. After the work on the BESM-6 was finished, Melnikov, Lebedev, and Sokolov were appointed as chief designers of the AS-6 computing system, compatible with BESM-6's software. The AS-6 computing system was developed in a short time and embodied many ideas that would be the basis of future supercomputers. Along with BESM-6 it was used in the Apollo-Soyuz space program and subsequent space vehicle launches. Melnikov was chosen as a corresponding member and, later, a full member of the Soviet Academy of Sciences. He was awarded the Order of Lenin Prize in 1956, the Order of Red Labor Banner in 1971 and 1976, the State Prize in 1969 and 1980, and laureate of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences Presidium's S. A. Lebedev Prize. Starting in 1976, he served as the director of the Glushkov Institute of Cybernetics and as chief designer of the Electronika SBIS supercomputer. He died suddenly in 1993.
Burtsev, known as the "Adjustment Ace," turned out to be a scientific whiz. When he presented his Master's thesis for his Candidate of Technology degree (the thesis incorporated his experience in building the Diana-1 and Diana-2 computers), the scientific council unanimously nominated him for a doctoral degree. Burtsev became Lebedev's trustworthy assistant in the development of high-speed control and information complexes for the anti-missile defense system and space flight control centers. After Lebedev's death, Burtsev served as Director of the Institute for Precision Mechanics until 1984. He was elected a corresponding member, and later a full member of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
The Elbrus Soviet supercomputer, using the latest principles of optical data processing in multi-machine and multi-processor complexes, was developed under Burtsev's supervision. The principle of calculation paralleling proposed by Lebedev, found a logical development in Burtsev's work for which he was awarded four special orders: a Lenin Laureate Prize, two State Prizes, and the S.A. Lebedev Prize.
Dozens if not hundreds of specialists trained in Lebedev's school remain true to its principles. Some of them have retired; others are still working, but the majority of them are still connected with the Institute for Precision Mechanics. Unfortunately, it is impossible to describe all of their work in detail within the scope of this book.
The S.A. Lebedev Institute for Precision Mechanics and Computer Technology did not yield its leadership position during the Soviet years: after the supercomputers Elbrus-1 and Elbrus-2 were completed in the 1980s, the subsequent supercomputer Elbrus 3-1 was completed in 1991.
Corresponding member of Russian Academy of Sciences Ryabov and the chief designers of the complex's main machines, Andrey Andreevich Sokolov and Mark Valerianovich Tiapkin, have remained at the Institute for Precision Mechanics since 1986, through the unstable period that followed the collapse of the Soviet Union. Today, according to unanimous opinion, they are the highest ranking specialists – the "gold stock" of the institute.
Sadly, the majority of other Soviet computing organizations have experienced a different and declining fate during the decades after the war. I will discuss this in greater detail in the subsequent chapters.